Literature Review Paper: Nomophobia  

            When thinking about addiction, it is inevitable not to think in the millions of lives that they are taking. Also, in this though exercise we can think of the different types of addictions such as the addictions to drugs, alcohol, food, gambling, sex, shopping, love, sports, etc. Whatever the type, we cannot deny that addictions cause medical, psychological and social harm to the individuals, and the people that surround them by removing freedom, rationality, mental state and more. Nevertheless, with the growth and propagation of mobile economic devices, we are now living in a mobile age in which mobiles are the lasted evolution of technology and have become an indispensable part of our lives. According to Pew Research Center’s Mobile Technology Fact Sheet, as of January 2014, 90% of the American adult population has some kind of cell phone and, 58% of American adults own a smartphone. This is nothing in comparison to the worldwide use of cell phones. According to data from 2016, 58.7% of the world’s population (4.30 billion) was using mobile phones. Nearly half of this number (2.14 billion) is estimated to have been using smartphones.[1]Additionally, the rapid growth and transformation of this information and communication technologies have led us to analyze the concept of smartphone addiction. Thus, smartphones are particularly popular in young adults. In fact, high school and college students are the early adopters of smartphones.[2]

For purposes of this paper, we are going to designate “Nomophobia” as an addiction. The literature of nomophobia describes it as the fear, anxiety of not being able to use one’s smartphone, and the services it offers, until the point of affecting academic performance, productivity, sleeping, and human behavior[3]. Smartphone addiction is defined as an individual’s excessive use of a smartphone and its negative effects on her/his life as a consequence of her/his inability to control this behavior. Current research has examined smartphone addiction in light of four categories: tolerance, withdrawal, excessiveness and functional disorder. [4]However, “addiction” is a strong word to use since it is a form of disrespect to the people who have true addictions and true phobias who need profound help, labeling nomophobia as an addiction will shift the focus of the review to a more solid direction. Also, nomophobia and addictions share a common pattern. According to the National Institutes of Health, substance addiction is associated with a steep increase in usage and attempts to seek out the substance. Also, important social, occupational, or recreational activities are given up or reduced because of use of the substance.[5]

After reading the literature of nomophobia we came to know that the same has some of the characteristics of an addiction. In fact, some experts considered nomophobia as a byproduct of our current exposure to technologies nowadays. This point arises one of the most critical problems in the literature of nomophobia: experts agree on the definition but not on what it is. This is derived from the fact that as we extensively review the literature of nomophobia, there are many evident patterns and connections in the conversation and research done on the topic. Nevertheless, these patterns are obscured by the number of inconsistencies and shortcomings in the same. Factors that are going to be explored as we deepen into the review.

Nomophobia is a relatively new addiction. The term nomophobia is an abbreviation for no-mobile-phone phobia. Nomophobia is the fear of not being able to use one’s smartphone, and the services it offers.[6]This term and definition were first coined during a study conducted in 2008 by the UK Post office to investigate anxieties mobile phone users suffer. The 2008 study in the UK, conducted with over 2100 people, demonstrated that 53% of mobile phone users suffered from nomophobia.[7]Data from questionaries’ played a role in the results of this study. The study contained questions ranging from time use, and level of anxiety in a relationship with smartphone use. In the study, researchers reported that 53% of mobile users felt anxious when they were unable to use their mobile phones and over half of the users never shut their phones off. People have become dependent on their mobile phones more than ever, which, in turn, supposedly intensifies the feelings of anxiety caused by being out of mobile phone contact. Subsequently, studies adopted the definition coined by the 2018UK study with small differences concerning to the stance and direction of their research. Subsequent studies around the world have found that the numbers have increased since then. Although the UK study just explored the levels of anxiety regarding smartphone use, currently Psychologists and Researchers are fighting over the inclusion, recognition, and validation of nomophobia as a real addiction. To make that a reality, they have extended the research into the effects of smartphone use in human behavior, social and academic scenarios. As a result, our knowledge in the inquiry of nomophobia and smartphone use has growth.

The current research seeks to explore the dimensions of nomophobia, by understanding the effects of smartphones on attention and learning, the creation of stress, cognitive effects and addiction to smartphones as an attempt to validate the same by using questionaries’ fieldwork, sample sizes in a wide range of scenarios and situations. To be specific psychologist and researchers have come to know that attention is most likely to be impaired by cellphone distractions. Also, that having a smartphone, being distracted by a smartphone, and nomophobia consistently impacted quiz performance for material.[8]Moreover, that Nomophobia affects stress through the perception of a social threat and that this indirect effect depends on the context of a phone withdrawal situation. Thus, recent empirical research indicates that people with nomophobia suffer from stress when their smartphones are out of reach. Only under the condition of low uncertainty and high control does nomophobia not lead to stress. Stress intensifies in different scenarios that range from the unavailability of a smartphone, the thought of not having it, not being able to use it and losing it.[9]

Meanwhile, other research papers examine an explanatory model for sleep problems that includes cognitive components as well as daily and night-time technology use. This sleep-oriented research spunk that 20% of young adults reported being awakened at least a few nights a week, most often by an alert or notification from a smartphone. A 2013 study of college students found that 47% reported nighttime awakenings to answer text messages and 40% awoke to answer phone calls, which, in turn, predicted poorer sleep quality.[10]In other words, anxiety about being away from technology and dependence on technology predicted increased daily smartphone use and increased nighttime phone awakenings, both of which predicted increased sleep problems. Multiple research papers clear the fact that the work of psychologists and researchers in nomophobia share many relationships. For instance, the use of Quantitative and Qualitative forms of data to approach a current common theory in the topic of smartphone use and nomophobia: Smartphone use impacts learning, memory in college students, increases stress from withdrawing as well as affecting productivity in the work environment, and affecting sleep patterns. At this point, the psychologists argue that the same can be linked to symptoms of nomophobia. At the same time, there is a non-ending fight over the recognition of these findings among psychologist, researchers, and many professional organizations such as the American Psychological Association. Most of the suggestions and treatments for trying to “cure” this addiction are non-realistic or not-empirically verified. However, since this a relatively new disease is comprehensive that the research and material of study are oriented towards validating this addiction instead of finding the cure or alternatives to solve it. Nevertheless, this is a sing that if validated more research must be done.

In the literature of nomophobia, experts seem to agree in the definition, the implemented forms of empirical data to reach an answer, the fight towards validating this addiction, and the stance that smartphones affect the human behavior, productivity, work and, academic environment. However, as mentioned before one of the most critical problems in the literature of nomophobia and the reason of why this addiction has a hard time to be validated by psychologists, is the lack of inclusiveness in the evidence, and its contradictions. From a wide range of research papers, experts agree that nomophobia is the fear of not being able to use one’s smartphone and the services it offers. But psychologists are not clear in what exactly nomophobia is? Some research papers and psychologist argue that is an addiction,[11]a social phobia,[12]an object-oriented phobia,[13]anxiety disorder,[14]or a situation-specific phobia[15]. This implies that understanding and agreement in the matter is lacking. With this kind of research, it can be anything. The spectrum of nomophobia is broad, that can be a remarkable thing indicating that psychologists may it be into something. Nonetheless, it can also mean that the research is limited, and if nomophobia has such a broad spectrum, trying to orient the analysis with a meta-study towards proving that indeed nomophobia has such repercussions in society could help. Other things to point out are that all the data comes from questionaries’ focused in cities and universities. This indicates that further investigation into the prevalence of nomophobia among different demographic groups in diverse contexts is needed. For instance, a previous study revealed that females were more susceptible to nomophobia when compared to males.[16]Conversely, in another study, males were shown to be more likely to demonstrate nomophobic behaviors than males.[17]Given these inconsistent results, further investigation is needed to determine whether males and females differ in their tendency to nomophobia. Besides, future research should aim to determine which factors predict nomophobia, which can be useful for identifying potential risk groups and developing prevention strategies to help those groups deal with nomophobia.

 

 

Works Cited

Caglar Yildirim, Ana-Paula Correia. (2015). Exploring the dimensions of nomophobia: Development and validation of a self-reported questionnaire, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 49, Pages 130-137.

Emarketer. (2014). Smartphone users worldwide will total 1.75 billion in 2014, Examining the factors that influence early adopters’ smartphone adoption: The case of college students. Telematics and Informatics, Volume 31(2), Pages 308-315.

Fung, B. (2015, May 19). Why you shouldn’t confuse ‘nomophobia’ with an actual addiction to smartphones. Retrieved November 05, 2018, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/05/19/why-you-shouldnt-confuse-nomophobia-with-an-actual-addiction-to-smartphones/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.484f89a0351a

Hatice Yildiz Durak. (2018) Investigation of nomophobia and smartphone addiction predictors among adolescents in Turkey: Demographic variables and academic performance, The Social Science Journal, Pages 1-23.

Jessica S. Mendoza, Benjamin C. Pody, Seungyeon Lee, Minsung Kim, Ian M. McDonough. (2018). The effect of cellphones on attention and learning: The influences of time, distraction, and nomophobia, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 86, Pages 52-60.

Larry Rosen, Louis M. Carrier, Aimee Miller, Jeffrey Rokkum, Abraham Ruiz. (2016). Sleeping with technology: cognitive, affective, and technology usage predictors of sleep problems among college students, Sleep Health, Volume 2(1), Pages 49-56.

Mail Online (2008). Nomophobia is the fear of being out of mobile phone contact – And it’s the plague of our 24/7 age. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-550610/Nomophobia-fear-mobile-phone-contact–plague-24-7-age.html, Retrieved November 8, 2018.

Murphy, D. (2017). 2.4BN smartphone users in 2017, says emarketer.

Şahin Gökçearslan, Çelebi Uluyol, Sami Şahin. (2018). Smartphone addiction, cyberloafing, stress and social support among university students: A path analysis, Children and Youth Services Review, Volume 91, Pages 47-54.

SecurEnvoy (2012). 66% of the population suffer from nomophobia the fear of being without their phone. https://www.securenvoy.com/en-gb/blog/66-population-suffer-nomophobia-fear-being-without-their-phone, Retrieved November 8, 2018.

Stefan Tams, Renaud Legoux, Pierre-Majorique Léger. (2018). Smartphone withdrawal creates stress: A moderated mediation model of nomophobia, social threat, and phone withdrawal context, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 81, Pages 1-9.

[1]Lee, S. Y. (2014). Examining the factors that influence early adopters’ smartphone adoption: The case of college students. Telematics and Informatics, 31(2), Page 308.

[2]Lee, S. Y. (2014). Examining the factors that influence early adopters’ smartphone adoption: The case of college students. Telematics and Informatics, 31(2), Page 308.

[3]Stefan Tams, Renaud Legoux, Pierre-Majorique Léger. (2018). Smartphone withdrawal creates stress: A moderated mediation model of nomophobia, social threat, and phone withdrawal context, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 81, Page 1.

[4]Şahin Gökçearslan, Çelebi Uluyol, Sami Şahin. (2018). Smartphone addiction, cyberloafing, stress and social support among university students: A path analysis, Children and Youth Services Review, Volume 91, Page 48.

[5]Fung, B. (2015, May 19). Why you shouldn’t confuse ‘nomophobia’ with an actual addiction to smartphones. Retrieved November 05, 2018, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/05/19/why-you-shouldnt-confuse-nomophobia-with-an-actual-addiction-to-smartphones/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.484f89a0351a

[6]Stefan Tams, Renaud Legoux, Pierre-Majorique Léger. (2018). Smartphone withdrawal creates stress: A moderated mediation model of nomophobia, social threat, and phone withdrawal context, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 81, Page 1.

[7]Caglar Yildirim, Ana-Paula Correia. (2015). Exploring the dimensions of nomophobia: Development and validation of a self-reported questionnaire, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 49, Page 131.

[8]Jessica S. Mendoza, Benjamin C. Pody, Seungyeon Lee, Minsung Kim, Ian M. McDonough. (2018). The effect of cellphones on attention and learning: The influences of time, distraction, and nomophobia, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 86, Page 54.

[9]Stefan Tams, Renaud Legoux, Pierre-Majorique Léger. (2018). Smartphone withdrawal creates stress: A moderated mediation model of nomophobia, social threat, and phone withdrawal context, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 81, Page 6.

[10]Larry Rosen, Louis M. Carrier, Aimee Miller, Jeffrey Rokkum, Abraham Ruiz. (2016). Sleeping with technology: cognitive, affective, and technology usage predictors of sleep problems among college students, Sleep Health, Volume 2(1), Page 49.

[11]Şahin Gökçearslan, Çelebi Uluyol, Sami Şahin. (2018). Smartphone addiction, cyberloafing, stress and social support among university students: A path analysis, Children and Youth Services Review, Volume 91, Page 48.

[12]Stefan Tams, Renaud Legoux, Pierre-Majorique Léger. (2018). Smartphone withdrawal creates stress: A moderated mediation model of nomophobia, social threat, and phone withdrawal context, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 81, Page 3.

[13]Hatice Yildiz Durak. (2018) Investigation of nomophobia and smartphone addiction predictors among adolescents in Turkey: Demographic variables and academic performance, The Social Science Journal, Page 3.

[14]Jessica S. Mendoza, Benjamin C. Pody, Seungyeon Lee, Minsung Kim, Ian M. McDonough. (2018). The effect of cellphones on attention and learning: The influences of time, distraction, and nomophobia, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 86, Page 53.

Larry Rosen, Louis M. Carrier, Aimee Miller, Jeffrey Rokkum, Abraham Ruiz. (2016). Sleeping with technology: cognitive, affective, and technology usage predictors of sleep problems among college students, Sleep Health, Volume 2(1), Page 55.

[15]Caglar Yildirim, Ana-Paula Correia. (2015). Exploring the dimensions of nomophobia: Development and validation of a self-reported questionnaire, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 49, Page 131.

[16]SecurEnvoy (2012). 66% of the population suffer from nomophobia the fear of being without their phone. https://www.securenvoy.com/en-gb/blog/66-population-suffer-nomophobia-fear-being-without-their-phone, Retrieved November 8, 2018.

[17]Mail Online (2008). Nomophobia is the fear of being out of mobile phone contact – And it’s the plague of our 24/7 age. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-550610/Nomophobia-fear-mobile-phone-contact–plague-24-7-age.html, Retrieved November 8, 2018.